A Review of the Potential Use of Pinene and Linalool as Terpene-Based Medicines for Brain Health: Discovering Novel Therapeutics in the Flavours and Fragrances of Cannabis

Posted on September 16, 2021 by David

“”Medicinal cannabis” is defined as the use of cannabis-based products for the treatment of an illness. Investigations of cannabis compounds in psychiatric and neurological illnesses primarily focus on the major cannabinoids, cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), which are hypothesised to benefit multiple illnesses manifesting cognitive impairment, neurodegeneration and neuro-inflammation, as well as chronic pain, epilepsy and post-traumatic stress disorder, respectively.

The cannabis plant contains >500 compounds, including terpenes responsible for the flavour and fragrance profiles of plants. Recently, research has begun providing evidence on the potential use of certain plant-derived terpenes in modern medicine, demonstrating anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects of these compounds.

This review examined the effects of two key terpenes, pinene and linalool, on parameters relevant to neurological and psychiatric disorders, highlighting gaps in the literature and recommendations for future research into terpene therapeutics.

Overall, evidence is mostly limited to preclinical studies and well-designed clinical trials are lacking. Nevertheless, existing data suggests that pinene and linalool are relevant candidates for further investigation as novel medicines for illnesses, including stroke, ischemia, inflammatory and neuropathic pain (including migraine), cognitive impairment (relevant to Alzheimer’s disease and ageing), insomnia, anxiety, and depression.

Linalool and pinene influence multiple neurotransmitter, inflammatory and neurotrophic signals as well as behaviour, demonstrating psycho-activity (albeit non-intoxicating). Optimising the phytochemical profile of cannabis chemovars to yield therapeutic levels of beneficial terpenes and cannabinoids, such as linalool, pinene and CBD, could present a unique opportunity to discover novel medicines to treat psychiatric and neurological illnesses; however, further research is needed.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34512404/

“Overall, it appears that the importance of the terpene profile of plants to humans extends further than mere olfactory and gustatory delight. Rather, these compounds have the potential for use as treatments for serious chronic neurological and psychiatric illnesses.”

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.583211/full

Cannabinoids for the treatment of refractory neuropathic pruritus in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A case report

Posted on September 13, 2021 by David

“Background: Neuropathic symptoms have a wide variety of manifestations, ranging from pain to pruritus. Neuropathic pruritus is a type of chronic pruritus related to damaged small fibers. Cannabinoids have evidence to manage neuropathic symptoms. We present a case of refractory neuropathic pruritus that was successfully managed with the use of oral cannabinoids.

Case presentation: A 60-year-old male with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with ongoing pruritus despite the use of standard neuropathic therapies.

Formulation of a plan: A balanced oral cannabinoid from a licensed producer was preferred as it has evidence for neuropathic symptoms and is generally well tolerated.

Outcome: The patient showed improvement to his pruritus score from 7/10 to 3/10. There was initial increased sedation but tolerance developed quickly.

Lessons learned from case: Cannabinoids are possibly safe and effective in management of neuropathic pruritus.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34510973/

“Neuropathic pruritus is a chronic form of pruritus that causes significant symptom burden and can be difficult to treat. Cannabinoids have evidence to manage chronic neuropathic pain. This case demonstrates the safe and effective use of cannabinoids to manage neuropathic pruritus.”

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/02692163211045314

Cannabinoids and Cancer

Posted on September 11, 2021 by David

“Cannabinoids, active components of the plant Cannabis sativa, had been used for centuries in ancient medicine as therapeutic remedies for a variety of conditions, before becoming stigmatized due to their psychoactive effects.

In the second half of the 19th century, phyto-cannabinoids have been re-evaluated after the discovery of the chemical structure and isolation of different substances, and the subsequent development of cannabinoid-based drugs that have been FDA approved mainly to treat chemotherapy-induced nausea, insomnia and appetite, epilepsy, spasticity, and pain management.

Then, the elucidation of the endocannabinoid system, from the initial type 1 and type 2 (CB₁ and CB₂) cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands (especially N-arachidonoylethanolamine, or anandamide, and 2-arachidonoylglycerol) to the emerging complexity of a wider system made up of additional putative receptors, ligands and enzymes, altogether termed endocannabinoidome, has further boosted research into the therapeutic potential of phyto-, endo- and even syntho-(synthetic) cannabinoids, cancer treatment included.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34503268/

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/17/4458/htm

Cannabinoids and Endocannabinoid System Changes in Intestinal Inflammation and Colorectal Cancer

Posted on September 11, 2021 by David

“Despite the multiple preventive measures and treatment options, colorectal cancer holds a significant place in the world’s disease and mortality rates. The development of novel therapy is in critical need, and based on recent experimental data, cannabinoids could become excellent candidates. This review covered known experimental studies regarding the effects of cannabinoids on intestinal inflammation and colorectal cancer. In our opinion, because colorectal cancer is a heterogeneous disease with different genomic landscapes, the choice of cannabinoids for tumor prevention and treatment depends on the type of the disease, its etiology, driver mutations, and the expression levels of cannabinoid receptors. In this review, we describe the molecular changes of the endocannabinoid system in the pathologies of the large intestine, focusing on inflammation and cancer.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34503163/

“In recent years, multiple preclinical studies have shown that changes in endocannabinoid system signaling may have various effects on intestinal inflammation and colorectal cancer. However, not all tumors can respond to cannabinoid therapy in the same manner. Given that colorectal cancer is a heterogeneous disease with different genomic landscapes, experiments with cannabinoids should involve different molecular subtypes, emerging mutations, and various stages of the disease. We hope that this review can help researchers form a comprehensive understanding of cannabinoid interactions in colorectal cancer and intestinal bowel diseases. We believe that selecting a particular experimental model based on the disease’s genetic landscape is a crucial step in the drug discovery, which eventually may tremendously benefit patient’s treatment outcomes and bring us one step closer to individualized medicine.”

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/17/4353

The Endocannabinoid System: A Potential Target for the Treatment of Various Diseases

Posted on September 10, 2021 by David

“The Endocannabinoid System (ECS) is primarily responsible for maintaining homeostasis, a balance in internal environment (temperature, mood, and immune system) and energy input and output in living, biological systems.

In addition to regulating physiological processes, the ECS directly influences anxiety, feeding behaviour/appetite, emotional behaviour, depression, nervous functions, neurogenesis, neuroprotection, reward, cognition, learning, memory, pain sensation, fertility, pregnancy, and pre-and post-natal development.

The ECS is also involved in several pathophysiological diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. In recent years, genetic and pharmacological manipulation of the ECS has gained significant interest in medicine, research, and drug discovery and development.

The distribution of the components of the ECS system throughout the body, and the physiological/pathophysiological role of the ECS-signalling pathways in many diseases, all offer promising opportunities for the development of novel cannabinergic, cannabimimetic, and cannabinoid-based therapeutic drugs that genetically or pharmacologically modulate the ECS via inhibition of metabolic pathways and/or agonism or antagonism of the receptors of the ECS. This modulation results in the differential expression/activity of the components of the ECS that may be beneficial in the treatment of a number of diseases.

This manuscript in-depth review will investigate the potential of the ECS in the treatment of various diseases, and to put forth the suggestion that many of these secondary metabolites of Cannabis sativa L. (hereafter referred to as “C. sativa L.” or “medical cannabis”), may also have potential as lead compounds in the development of cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals for a variety of diseases.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34502379/

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/17/9472

“Cannabis sativa L. as a Natural Drug Meeting the Criteria of a Multitarget Approach to Treatment”

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7830475/

Cannabidiol reverses memory impairments and activates components of the Akt/GSK3β pathway in an experimental model of estrogen depletion

Posted on August 30, 2021 by David

Behavioural Brain Research “Clinical and preclinical evidence has indicated that estrogen depletion leads to memory impairments and increases the susceptibility to neural damage.

Here, we have sought to investigate the effects of Cannabidiol (CBD) a non-psychotomimetic compound from Cannabis sativa, on memory deficits induced by estrogen depletion in rats, and its underlying mechanisms.

Results revealed that ovariectomy impaired avoidance memory, and CBD was able to completely reverse estrogen depletion-induced memory impairment. Ovariectomy also reduced Akt/GSK3β pathway’s activation by decreasing the phosphorylation levels of Akt and GSK3β and Bcl2 levels, which were ameliorated by CBD.

The present results indicate that CBD leads to a functional recovery accompanied by the Akt/GSK3β survival pathway’s activation, supporting its potential as a treatment for estrogen decline-induced deterioration of neural functioning and maintenance.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34450240/

“In the present study, we aimed to understand the possible neuroprotective effect of CBD against estrogen depletion-induced emotional memory deficits, using an animal model of ovariectomy-induced estrogen depletion. Once CBD and estradiol modulate a common pathway, we speculated whether CBD would be able to reverse the deleterious effect of estradiol decline observed in menopause. Results revealed that ovariectomy impaired avoidance memory, and CBD was able to completely reverse estrogen depletion-induced memory impairment.”

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166432821004435?via%3Dihub

The Pathophysiology and the Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoids in Prostate Cancer

Posted on August 27, 2021 by David

“Prostate cancer is the second most frequently occurring cancer diagnosed among males. Recent preclinical evidence implicates cannabinoids as powerful regulators of cell growth and differentiation. In this review, we focused on studies that demonstrated anticancer effects of cannabinoids and their possible mechanisms of action in prostate cancer. Besides the palliative effects of cannabinoids, research from the past two decades has demonstrated their promising potential as antitumor agents in a wide variety of cancers. This analysis may provide pharmacological insights into the selection of specific cannabinoids for the development of antitumor drugs for the treatment of prostate cancer.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34439262/

“Prostate cancer, after lung cancer, is the leading cause of death among men. Although the pathophysiological mechanisms and the etiological factors of prostate cancer development are still poorly understood, there are several factors associated with the risk of developing the disease such as age, family history, lifestyle-related factors (e.g., smoking, diet), and testosterone levels. Cannabinoids are an emerging class of pharmacological molecules that may exert their therapeutic effect against different cancers, including those from the prostate. Several studies have shown that various agonists are able to target cannabinoid receptors exhibited on prostate cancer cells.”

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/16/4107

Pharmacological characterisation of the CB 1 receptor antagonist activity of cannabidiol in the rat vas deferens bioassay

Posted on August 25, 2021 by David

European Journal of Pharmacology “Cannabidiol is increasingly considered for treatment of a wide range of medical conditions. Binding studies suggest that cannabidiol binds to CB₁ receptors. In the rat isolated vas deferens bioassay, a single electrical pulse causes a biphasic contraction from nerve-released ATP and noradrenaline. WIN 55,212-2 acts on prejunctional CB₁ receptors to inhibit release of these transmitters. In this bioassay, we tested whether cannabidiol and SR141716 were acting as competitive antagonists of this receptor. Monophasic contractions mediated by ATP or noradrenaline in the presence of prazosin or NF449 (P2X1 inhibitor), respectively, were measured to a single electrical pulse delivered every 30 min. Following treatment with cannabidiol (10-100 μM) or SR141716 (0.003-10 μM), cumulative concentrations of WIN 55,212-2 (0.001-30 μM) were applied followed by a single electrical pulse. The WIN 55,212-2 concentration-contraction curve EC₅₀ values were applied to global regression analysis to determine the pK_B. The antagonist potency of cannabidiol at the CB₁ receptor in the rat vas deferens bioassay matched the reported receptor binding affinity. Cannabidiol was a competitive antagonist of WIN 55,212-2 with pK_B values of 5.90 when ATP was the effector transmitter and 5.29 when it was noradrenaline. Similarly, SR141716 was a competitive antagonist with pK_B values of 8.39 for ATP and 7.67 for noradrenaline as the active transmitter. Cannabidiol’s low micromolar CB₁ antagonist pK_B values suggest that at clinical blood levels (1-3 μM) it may act as a CB₁ antagonist at prejunctional neuronal sites with more potency when ATP is the effector than for noradrenaline.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34416240/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0014299921005860?via%3Dihub

Cannabidiol reduces lesion volume and restores vestibulomotor and cognitive function following moderately severe traumatic brain injury

Posted on August 25, 2021 by David

Experimental Neurology “Despite the high incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI), there is no universal treatment to safely treat patients. Blunt brain injuries destroy primary neural tissue that results in impaired perfusion, excessive release of glutamate, inflammation, excitotoxicity, and progressive secondary neuronal cell death.

We hypothesized that administration of cannabidiol (CBD) directly to a brain contusion site, will optimize delivery to the injured tissue which will reduce local neural excitation and inflammation to spare neural tissue and improve neurological outcome following TBI.

CBD was infused into a gelfoam matrix forming an implant (CBDi), then applied over the dura at the contusion site as well as delivered systemically by injection (CBD.IP). Post-injury administration of CBDi+IP greatly reduced defecation scores, lesion volume, the loss of neurons in the ipsilateral hippocampus, the number of injured neurons of the contralateral hippocampus, and reversed TBI-induced glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) upregulation which was superior to either CBD.IP or CBDi treatment alone.

Vestibulomotor performance on the beam-balance test was restored by 12 days post-TBI and sustained through 28 days. CBDi+IP treated rats exhibited preinjury levels of spontaneous alternation on the spontaneous alternation T-maze. In the object recognition test, they had greater mobility and exploration of novel objects compared to contusion or implant alone consistent with reduced anxiety and restored cognitive function.

These results suggest that dual therapy by targeting the site of injury internally with a CBD-infused medical carrier followed by systemic supplementation may offer a more effective countermeasure than systemic or implant treatment alone for the deleterious effects of penetrating head wounds.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34428457/

“CBD improved vestibulomotor function and learning and memory cognitive performance post-TBI. Local delivery at the contusion site and systemic injection of CBD reduced TBI-induced lesion volume. Dual treatment, direct and systemic CBD, is superior to single treatment.”

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0014488621002521?via%3Dihub

http://www.thctotalhealthcare.com/category/brain-trauma/

Efficacy and Safety of Cannabidiol Plus Standard Care vs Standard Care Alone for the Treatment of Emotional Exhaustion and Burnout Among Frontline Health Care Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Posted on August 20, 2021 by David

“Importance: Frontline health care professionals who work with patients with COVID-19 have an increased incidence of burnout symptoms. Cannabidiol (CBD) has anxiolytic and antidepressant properties and may be capable of reducing emotional exhaustion and burnout symptoms.

Objective: To investigate the safety and efficacy of CBD therapy for the reduction of emotional exhaustion and burnout symptoms among frontline health care professionals working with patients with COVID-19.

Interventions: Cannabidiol, 300 mg (150 mg twice per day), plus standard care or standard care alone for 28 days.

Main outcomes and measures: The primary outcome was emotional exhaustion and burnout symptoms, which were assessed for 28 days using the emotional exhaustion subscale of the Brazilian version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey for Medical Personnel.

Results: A total of 120 participants were randomized to receive either CBD, 300 mg, plus standard care (treatment arm; n = 61) or standard care alone (control arm; n = 59) for 28 days. Of those, 118 participants (59 participants in each arm; 79 women [66.9%]; mean age, 33.6 years [95% CI, 32.3-34.9 years]) received the intervention and were included in the efficacy analysis. In the treatment arm, scores on the emotional exhaustion subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory significantly decreased at day 14 (mean difference, 4.14 points; 95% CI, 1.47-6.80 points; partial eta squared [ηp2] = 0.08), day 21 (mean difference, 4.34 points; 95% CI, 0.94-7.73 points; ηp2 = 0.05), and day 28 (mean difference, 4.01 points; 95% CI, 0.43-7.59 points; ηp2 = 0.04). However, 5 participants, all of whom were in the treatment group, experienced serious adverse events: 4 cases of elevated liver enzymes (1 critical and 3 mild, with the mild elevations reported at the final 28-day assessment) and 1 case of severe pharmacodermia. In 2 of those cases (1 with critical elevation of liver enzymes and 1 with severe pharmacodermia), CBD therapy was discontinued, and the participants had a full recovery.

Conclusions and relevance: In this study, CBD therapy reduced symptoms of burnout and emotional exhaustion among health care professionals working with patients during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, it is necessary to balance the benefits of CBD therapy with potential undesired or adverse effects. Future double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trials are needed to confirm the present findings.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34387679/

“Daily administration of CBD, 300 mg, combined with standard care reduced the symptoms and diagnoses of anxiety, depression, and emotional exhaustion among frontline health care professionals working with patients with COVID-19. Cannabidiol may act as an effective agent for the reduction of burnout symptoms among a population with important mental health needs worldwide.”

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2782994